Common Names:  prickly pear, nopales, tuna, Indian fig, many different names by many cultures of people across the regions in which it grows

Family:  Cactaceae

Habitat:  Like many other cactus species, the Opuntia genus is indigenous to much of North and South America as well as the Caribbean islands. Through human interaction, however, members of the Opuntia genus have spread to many other arid to semi-arid parts of the world. Here in Florida, we have 4 species of Opuntia indigenous to the state, and 3 that are non-native but naturalized. Of these three non-native species are O. ficus-indica & O. cochenillifera.  Opuntia species are sprawling to erect, ranging from 2 to 16 ft in height depending on the species. Cactus have modified flattened photosynthetic stems, called cladodes (pads), that are usually spiked and also have small spiny hair clusters called glochids. They have showy flowers in spring that range from yellow, to orange to red to pink that then form into dark red fruits that are also often spiked. Like other members of the Cactaceae family, Opuntia thrives in hot, desert-like climates.  Well-drained soil and full sun are ideal for this drought-tolerant plant. The easiest way to propagate a prickly pear is by rooting a cladode. Use heavy gloves to snap off a pad that is at least 6 months matured. Allow the pad to lay out for a few days and callus over. Place the callused end in a mix of equal parts potting soil and sand. Mist with water and do not water again until established. 

Parts Used:  pads, fruits, and flowers

History/Tradition:  The usage of the many Opuntia species is great and varied, from food and medicine to dye and water purification. This genus of cactus has historical and modern usage beyond that of nopal tacos (which is one superb way to utilize this spiky plant’s tender pads). Two species of Opuntia have particularly extensive histories of usage and modern science & research is delving in to further support this. Opuntia cochenillifera is a host to the insect Dactylopius coccus, or the cochineal bug. The female cochineal bug contains a red substance that, before the dawn of chemical dyes, was the main source of red-colored dye, known as carmine. In fact, this cactus and insect were historically of utmost importance in Mexican culture as well as trade. Historically carmine dye once ranked second behind silver as Mexico’s main export. While synthetic dyes have risen in popularity and remain the main source for most of the world’s red coloring, the tradition of utilizing the cochineal insect for coloring textiles is actively practiced in many Central and South American communities. Public concern about the safety of synthetic chemical dyes has created a recent resurgence of the carmine dye industry. O. ficus-indica is the species most commonly cultivated as food and is most likely what you will find as nopales on the shelf at the grocery store. As a food, both the young pads, botanically known as cladodes, and the mature fruit are consumed. There is a myriad of recipes from many different cultures around the world that utilize this cactus as food and beverage, as well as medicine. The mature fruits of the prickly pear make a delicious drink, syrup, jam, and liquor. In Florida, the fruits can be found from late fall into late winter. The tender pads can be cleaned of spikes and glochids (short, barbed spines/prickles) and consumed in a variety of different ways. (See recipe and links) The pads are a significant source of calcium, vitamin C and magnesium as well as other minerals.  

Indications:  Medicinally Opuntia has been reported through both historical use and scientific research to: act as a diuretic, an analgesic, antiviral, anti-fungal, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, mucilage, and more specifically to address urinary/renal issues, stomach ulcers, diarrhea, bronchial congestion, skin and eye inflammation, cuts and minor wounds and even high cholesterol & diabetes. The fruits are diuretic and when eaten in large quantities can even turn urine into a dark red color, similar to the fruits.  The fruits can be juiced and used when there is pain on urination to help with the inflammation.  The constituents within the fruit give it its hypoglycemic, antioxidant, antiulcerogenic, anticancer, neuroprotective, and hepatoprotective properties¹. The cactus pads can be heated and turned into a poultice to use on cuts, tumors, splinters, boils, pleurisy and rheumatic pain.  Michael Moore makes a drawing poultice from the filleted pad, places it against the injured body part, then covers it with gauze and tape and leaves it for several hours.  They too have different constituents within them that give them healing properties from their antioxidants, vitamins and flavonoids which help lower cholesterol and improve wound healing.

Systems:  urinary, respiratory, digestive

Actions:  diuretic, analgesic, antiviral, anti-fungal, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiulcer, hypoglycemic, neuroprotective

Cautions:  Handle fruit and pads with caution as the tiny, barbed spines can get stuck and irritate the skin

Constituents:  fiber, triterpines, malic acid, succinc acid, amino acids, polyphenols, ascorbic acid, vitamins E, C, K, and B, calcium, magnesium, carotenoids

Culinary Use:  Peggy Lantz offers guidance on harvesting and consuming prickly pear fruit. Utilize gloves, tongs, and care when harvesting fruit. They should be fully ripe and easy to pop off with a twist. Wash the fruit under a hose with high pressure to remove most of the spines and glochids. This is helpful but there will probably still be some spiney parts on the fruit so continue to handle with care. Slice fruits lengthwise, and put in a five-quart saucepan, add water and simmer 20 mins. Mash with potato masher and strain. Add 2 cups water to 2 cups juice and honey for a delicious cooling beverage. 

To harvest the pads, utilize the same technique of gloves and tongs. Cut off tender young pads. Carefully cut out large sections of spines with a knife. Prepare them using one of the many amazing recipes for nopales available! Here is an example of a recipe for tacos de nopales. 
Ingredients:

• ½ pound nopales
• 1 tablespoon vegetable oil
• 3 small spring onions or 1 white onion
• 3 small garlic cloves, peeled and sliced
•  large, fresh chili pepper, stem and seeds removed, sliced
• ½ teaspoon kosher salt
• 16 (5-inch) corn tortillas
• Sliced radish, for topping
• Crumbled queso fresco, for topping
• Lime wedges, for squeezing

Clean nopales. Heat oil in a wide pot or pan over medium heat for 2 minutes. Add the sliced onion, garlic, pepper, and cleaned nopales. Stir to coat the vegetables in the oil. Cover the pot with a lid, and cook for about 10 minutes. Remove the lid, stir in the salt, and continue to cook until most of the liquid evaporates about 5 minutes. To serve, char the tortillas on a gas burner or in a hot skillet. For each taco, stack 2 tortillas, scoop some warm nopales filling into the center, and top with radish, queso fresco, and lime wedges

Other Uses:  This incredible cactus has also been utilized as a thickener for earthen walls/structures, to filter contaminated water, fodder for cattle and wildlife and as a protective hedge.

References:

Austin, Daniel F. Florida Ethnobotany. CRC Press, 2004.

Bauman, Hannah, and Schmidt, Ashley. “Food as Medicine: Prickly Pear Cactus (Opuntia Ficus-Indica, Cactaceae).” Food as Medicine: Prickly Pear Cactus (Opuntia Ficus-Indica, Cactaceae), 2016,cms.herbalgram.org/heg/volume12/09September/FaMPricklyPear.html?utm_source=hootsuite&ts=1574108405&signature=023198362341f3c20c35ccbf3e67e477.

Deuerling, Richard J., and Peggy Sias Lantz. Florida’s Incredible Wild Edibles. Florida Native Plant Society, 1993.

“Opuntia.” Opuntia – Genus Page – ISB: Atlas of Florida Plants, florida.plantatlas.usf.edu/Genus.aspx?id=868.

¹Nopal Cactus (Opuntia ficus-indica) as a Source of Bioactive Compounds for Nutrition, Health and Disease. 2014. (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6270776/).

Medicinal Plants of the Desert and Canyon West by Michael Moore.  1989. Museum of New Mexico Press.

Latin Name, Family & Common + Folk Names

Latin Name: Taraxacum officinale

Family: Asteraceae

Common & Folklore Names: Dandelion, Lion’s Tooth, Blowball, Monk’s Head, Priest’s Crown, Dent-de-Lion (French for tooth of the lion), Pissenlit (French for piss the bed)

Botanical Information

Habitat: T. officinale grows wild on six of the seven continents. Want to guess which one is not sprouting this golden source of sustenance. One hint…its frozen tundra makes growing anything herbal quite unlikely.

However, it’s widespread global footprint, doesn’t mean it grows well in all climates and environments. For instance, it’s rare to see one in growing wild here in Central Florida. It becomes more likely in the Gainesville/Ocala region, and more common as you head north.

It prefers undisturbed areas and wide open spaces. Think pastures, the sides of road ways, and, of course, lawns.

Propagation: Dandelions are, perhaps, most recognized by their seed heads.  Those beautiful puffs that children (and many many adults) can’t resist pulling from the ground to blow into the wind. Those wishes we’re all blowing into the air, though, are also carrying clones of the parent plant. Each seed head creates anywhere from 54 to 176 seeds, giving the dandelion multitudes of opportunities to clone itself with every gust. Therefore, no pollinators are needed. Just one seed that roots into the ground and thrives. And Dandelion will take care of the rest.

Description: Leaves are sharply-toothed that grow directly from the ground in rosettes. The flowers are bright yellow and inflorescent. The root is perennial and tapering, simple and branched, and in good soil will attain a length of a foot or more and grow to be 1/2 to an inch in diameter.

History and Background

The history of the dandelion runs parallel to the history of human civilization. Wherever there is open space, they move in and, for lack of better words, take over. Dandelion has traveled and spread alongside the spread of colonialists, being brought along as an easy to cultivate and nutritious food source. Some believe the seeds traveled with the hay as colonists made their way across the globe, others believe they were intentionally carried to create new crops in lands where food supply was unknown.

There are references to the medicinal uses in written history as far back as the 11th century by Arabic physicians, and the 13th century by Welsch physicians. We know it goes back further due to Greek mythology, in which Hecate—goddess of the underworld—is said to have fed dandelions to Theseus for 30 days to give him the strength to defeat the Minotaur.

So, if this plant has such a history as being a staple in diets and medicinal use, how then did it become classified as a weed? And not only is it considered a pest by many, it’s often the quintessential representation for all weeds. Next time you visit your hardware or home store, take a look at the weed killers. Notice a certain plant ally posted on the labels?

In 17th century England, Western culture sees the “rise of the lawn.” Royals had had their gardens for centuries, but now we see the aristocracy begin to demonstrate their affluence for all to see that they didn’t need to grow their own food. They were wealthy enough to purchase it from outside sources. Therefore, following in the royal footsteps they began to use their vast manicured lawns and gardens as a symbol for status. Anything wild went out by the wayside and trickle this mentality down through history and we still, to this day, see a preference to manicured laws kept “weed”-free.

Herbalism and Uses

Parts Used: More often, the leaves and roots, both fresh and dried, are what is used, but the flower is edible.

Uses: The roots can be eaten much like any root vegetable. These are best picked in the Fall when the leaves have browned and they are grown to full-size. They can be dried and roasted to make a tea that is a diuretic and makes for an excellent caffeine-free coffee substitute. They can be used to make tinctures. Alcohol will extract the medicinal qualities and vinegar will pull the minerals—making it a nutritious addition to daily salad dressings. Overall, the root is an aide for poor digestion, liver function, prebiotics, and osteoarthritis.

The leaves are bitter when fresh, increasing in bitterness after the blooming. This bitter property increases saliva which helps break down starches and also proteins, increases bile which aids in fat digestion, and stimulates natural peristalsis. The leaves, too, are a diuretic. Hence the French name piss en lit which translates to “piss the bed” in English. Use them fresh in a salad, cook them with other vegetable or greens, or cook them any way you’d cook other greens. Medicinally, the fresh and dried leaves can be made into a tea, tincture, or vinegar extract.

The flowers are high in lutein, a constituent known to support eye health.  The flower syrup that comes from breaking the stalk tastes nutty and like vanilla, and is reputed to be a mood lifter. You can cook the flowers and make fried dandelion fritters, or eat the petals fresh in a salad. Jelly and wine are popular uses for the flowers, as is baking them into cookies or breads. Harvesting is best done in early spring, in the middle of the morning on a hot day, and processed right away.

Contraindications: There are no known contraindications, however, if one has an allergy to the Asteraceae family, mild reactions can result when using Dandelion.

Cautions: As with any wild foraging, you want to be mindful of where you’re picking. Avoid places close to roads and anywhere pesticides are used. With Dandelion roots growing as deep as they do, there’s extra reason to ensure that you’re not foraging in a place that’s used pesticides within the previous 5 years or had any kind of toxic waste ever.

Key Constituents: Sesquiterpene lactones Triterpenes, Polysaccharides

Leaf Constituents: Coumarins, Carotenoids, Minerals

Root Constituents: Taraxacoside, Phenolic acids, Mineralls

Actions: Diuretic, Detoxifying, Bitter

Recipe:

Contributed By Shay DeGrandis, Herbalism Instructor, Florida School of Holistic Living

4-6 cloves of garlic (depending on clove size and how garlicky you want the flavor)

2-3 Tbsp Olive oil

1/3 cup chopped onions

1/4 cup dried fruit, chopped (dates, raisins, cranberries are best)

1-4 anchovy filets (optional for vegan)

1 large bunch of fresh, Dandelion

your preferred green: kale, Swiss chard, mustard, turnip, collards, spinach, Bidens or Chaya or (after boiling first). Cooking times will vary with each, depending on type)

2-4 Tbsp of vinegar (see note below)

Salt and black pepper to taste

Optional additions to sprinkle on top: Crushed red pepper, hemp seeds, moringa powder, kelp, grated Parmesan/Pecorino/Romano cheese (or nutritional yeast for vegan)

1. Peel and mince garlic. Put aside and let garlic sit while preparing other ingredients.
2. Wash and chop greens. Make sure to get all dirt off to avoid grittiness. Leave some water on the leaves so they steam and wilt while cooking.
3. Chop onions and dried fruit.
4. Heat large sauté pan. Add oil once warmed.
5. Add onions to pan and cook, stirring regularly, until it begins to turn translucent, about 2 minutes.
6. Add fruit to pan. Cook until it begins to soften.
7. If using anchovy, place filets in pan and stir around until they melt into mixture.
8. Add garlic to pan. Stir into mixture until it becomes fragrant, about 1-2 minutes. Do not overcook.
9. Add leafy greens. Stir to coat in mixture. Stir occasionally to ensure all leaves begin to wilt.
10. Continue to cook until leaves are wilted to your desired texture. If the leaves are tougher, you can add a splash of water or stock to help with wilting — do this early enough so the liquid has time to evaporate during cooking.
11. Sprinkle with vinegar: place just enough vinegar onto the leaves to get them wet but avoid drowning them.
12. Add salt and pepper to taste.
13. Remove from heat and sprinkle with any additional ingredients.

NOTE: You can use any type of vinegar you prefer and will get a different flavor profile from each: red wine or apple cider will make it tarter; balsamic, an herbal oxymel or a dash of honey in the mix adds more sweetness; Fire Cider will give it a deeper flavor and some spiciness. Experiment!

References:

Chevallier, Andrew. “Taraxacum Officinale.” Essay. In Encyclopedia of Herbal Medicine 1, 1:141–41. New York, NY: DK/Penguin Random House, 2016.

DeGrandis, Shay. Plant Profile: Dandelion with Shay DeGrandis. YouTube, 2022.

Grieve, M. “Dandelion.” In A Modern Herbal: The Medicinal, Culinary, Cosmetic and Economic Properties, Cultivation and Folk-Lore of Herbs, Grasses, Fungi, Shrubs & Trees with All Their Modern Scientific Uses, 249–55. New York, NY: Dover Publications, 1982.

Hanna, Gabbie. Poem. In Dandelion, 104–5. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster, 2020.

The History Guy. Dandelions and Civilization: A Forgotten History. YouTube, 2019. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xyePMeGE3CI.

Do you love the flavor of traditional pesto? You can take a traditional pesto recipe and just replace some or all of the culinary basil with chickweed, and voila you have a yummy pesto with the medicinal benefits of chickweed. Here’s a guide for a traditional pesto recipe with chickweed:

Chickweed Pesto – January 2021, Plant of the month recipe

Want to try a fresh take on pesto? Maggie’s herbal pesto is packed with even more nutritional and medicinal goodness. It’s also a version that is vegan-friendly and mindfully replaces ingredients like cheese and pine nuts with really beneficial and yummy ingredients. Click on the YouTube video below to see just how Maggie prepares her chickweed pesto! (This herbal pesto preparation can be made with other delicious herbs or combination of herbs. We encourage you to roll up your sleeves and test it out yourselves.)

Maggie’s Delicious, Nutritious Herbal Pesto (It’s vegan)
• It’s a total of two cups of fresh herbs or rehydrated herbs.
• 1/4 cup olive oil
• 1/3 cup nutritional yeast
• 3 Tbsp each hemp hearts and pumpkin seeds
• 1-2 Tbsp minced garlic
• Salt & Pepper to taste

Latin name: Capsicum annuum – Solanaceae

Common name: Cayenne, chili pepper, chile

Cayenne comes from the same Capsicum genus that includes many other peppers like habaneros and jalapenos. Capsicum peppers are from the western hemisphere where they have been used for thousands of years. The word Capsicum derives from the Greek word kapto meaning “to bite.”

And bite it does! Cayenne is an amazing nightshade fruit that may be a friend or foe to your taste buds, but is full of medicinal qualities. One of my first herb mentors George D’arcy, used to consider Cayenne one of his primary plant allies. He would administer cayenne to stop bleeding from cuts to the skin, to folks with heart concerns prior to the EMT arriving to halt the progressive of cardiovascular events, and even used cayenne as an eye wash (I know! He tested it on me one summer when I got stabbed by a saw palmetto frond wading through the thick scrub along the banks the Econlockhatchee River. Yes, it was painful. Yes, I saw God that day. But it also worked!).

My teacher George derived his love of Cayenne from herbalist Dr. John Christopher, a Mormon doctor who espoused the virtues of cayenne in almost every formula he shared. Rosemary Gladstar says that you knew Dr. Christopher had given a lecture in town because the apothecaries and health food stores would be out of cayenne for weeks afterwards!

Uses: The powdered fruit of Capsicum annuum is a familiar culinary spice found in most grocery stores and many kitchen cabinets. Cayenne pepper can add kick and flavor to our favorite meals but it also packs a healing punch. This little chili supports our immune, cardiovascular, and digestive systems and can also be used topically as an analgesic. Cayenne pepper is unique in the world of herbal energetics in that it goes beyond warm and is decidedly hot and very dry. If you have ever taken a bite of cayenne pepper, or used a generous amount on your food, you have probably experienced this pepper’s strong ability to encourage movement in the body (sweating, nose running, eyes watering).

This exact physical reaction is what makes cayenne pepper so valuable in treating colds, flus and other congested respiratory infections. The flow of mucus out of the lungs and sinuses can help dispel infection while increasing body temperature. Inducing sweat helps our body to prevent pathogens from replicating.      

Cayenne also directly stimulates our circulatory and digestive systems. It increases blood flow and helps strengthen our heart and cardiovascular system. This action also makes cayenne especially valuable for the issue of cold extremities, helping move blood to those areas of the body. Because it stimulates our digestive system, in some cases it can provide relief from indigestion and soothe peptic ulcers. Topically, cayenne can be used to ease muscle and joint pain, especially that of rheumatic origin. One of the main constituents of cayenne, capsaicin, can decrease substance P — a neurotransmitter that relays the sensation of pain in the body. Unlike local anesthetics, cayenne does not eliminate all nerve sensation and cause numbness, it simply decreases pain. Amazing! Another good reason to keep cayenne in your spice cabinet is its use as a styptic (stops bleeding).

The fruit of the cayenne pepper is most often used in powdered form.

Growth/Habitat: Capsicum annuum  is native to the tropical and subtropical regions of North and South America. Capsicum annuum var. glabriusculum also known as chiltepin or bird pepper, is a variety of cayenne that is native to the Southern US. Cayenne is a perennial plant in our warm climate and will provide you with peppers year after year. Prefers warm to hot temperatures, full sun and well-drained soil. Cayenne does not need much water but does not like to dry out completely. The C. annuum plant has simple, ovate leaves arranged alternately and produces small white flowers before setting fruit. The fruit is generally red and about 3 to 6 inches in length. 

CAUTION: Never use cayenne on broken skin. Consume cayenne with food. Some people may find even small amounts of cayenne irritating. The oils in the pepper, especially the seeds, can burn the skin and eyes. Avoid mucus membranes as the pepper’s oils can burn them. Always thoroughly wash your hands when working with cayenne and consider wearing gloves if you are processing the whole fruit. Cayenne pepper is HOT. Do not utilize with people with hot constitutions or hot conditions.

Recipes

Cayenne salve for Pain Relief:

• 1 cup olive oil
• 1/4 cup beeswax, chopped or grated
• 4-5 tbsp cayenne pepper, powdered or chopped

Combine cayenne and oil in a double boiler and let infuse for 6-24 hours on low heat, until the oil becomes a deep red. Be mindful not to let the oil burn or boil!
Strain cayenne from the oil using cheesecloth or muslin-lined strainer
Add beeswax to the oil on top of the double boiler and allow to melt.
Pour liquid into tins or jars and let cool before adding lid.
Be sure to label your salve – with a spicy warning – and remember to wash your hands after application so you don’t accidentally meet your spicy salve on your sensitive eye tissue!

This is a great salve for muscle pain, arthritis, and nerve pain. It can sting a bit and should be avoided for open skin and sores. I also love applying this salve to my feet and toes before slipping them into my boots when heading out on a wintertime hike.

Fire Cider from Rosemary Gladstar:

• ½ cup grated fresh horseradish root
• ½ cup or more fresh chopped onions
• ¼ cup or more chopped garlic
• ¼ cup or more grated ginger
• Chopped fresh or dried cayenne pepper ‘to taste’. Can be whole or powdered. 

Put all of these ingredients in a quart mason jar, cover with apple cider vinegar by about an inch or two. Label and let sit for at least one month. Strain, bottle, label and store in a cool place or in the refrigerator for maximum shelf life.

Jethro Kloss’ Healing Liniment

• 1 quart 70 percent rubbing alcohol
• 2 ounces powdered myrrh
• 1/2 ounce cayenne pepper
• 1 ounce powdered goldenseal *if cultivated from a sustainable source* or 1 ounce powdered oregon grape root, bidens leaf, or spilanthes leaf + flower to substitute

Mix all these ingredients together and let stand for 7-30 days. Shake it periodically. Decant and bottle with a label which reads, “For external use only.”

How to use: For headache, Kloss recommends applying the liniment to the temples, back of the neck, and forehead. For sprains, he says to apply the liniment freely and massage for 15 to 20 minutes before the swelling sets in. Repeat three to four times a day. He also says to apply the liniment for bruises and back pain.

Rosemary Gladstar recommends using Kloss’ Liniment for disinfecting wounds from splinters, cold sores and fever blisters, poison oak and ivy, and warts.

What do other herbalists say about Cayenne?

    After much experience and trying every thing within my knowledge, to gain this important point, I fixed upon the medicine which I have called No. 2 [Cayenne, Capsicum spp.], in my patent, for that purpose; and after using it for many years, I am perfectly convinced that it is the best thing that can be made use of to hold the heat in the stomach until the system can be cleared of obstructions, so as to produce a natural digestion of the food, which will nourish the body, establish perspiration and restore the health of the patient. I found it to be perfectly safe in all cases, and never knew any bad effects from administering it.
– Samuel Thompson

I have cured with cayenne pepper cases of rheumatism that had been for years most distressing… Though severe on the tissue to which applied, cayenne is so diffusive that it does not long derange the circulation, but on the contrary, equalizes it. Thus it is not only stimulant, but antispasmodic, increases sweating, anti-inflammatory, detoxifying, and restorative.
– Jethro Kloss

If you master only one herb in your life, master cayenne pepper. It is more powerful than anything else.
– Dr. Richard Shulze

Capsicum (red pepper) is the most pronounced, natural and ideal stimulant known in the entire medical material. It cannot be equalled by any known agent when a powerful and prolonged stimulant is needed, as in congestive chills, heart failure, and other conditions calling for quick action.
– R. Swinburne Clymer

I had hardening of the arteries, during my 20 and 30 year span, to a point that it was very severe. No insurance company at this time, would even take me for a $1,000 policy. So you can tell how bad of a condition I was in. I was quite concerned about it, and started using cayenne. I worked up to a teaspoon three times a day, and I continued on from the time I was thirty-five and am still using it. It was amazing! By the time I was forty-five years of age, ten years after I had started using cayenne, a group wanted me to have a $100,000 policy to insure them on a business deal we were working out. I went for the examination. Being this large a policy, the insurance company required two medical doctors, each to give two physicals at various times (being four times to have physicals with these two doctors). I took the examination and one medical doctor when he got through, said, “Well, this is astounding. I see your age is forty-five years, but you have the venous structure of a teenage boy.” He said, “This is excellent,” and he gave me a clean bill of health. I went to the other doctor and on his second examination he did the blood pressure test on my arm. He pumped his equipment up five different times and my arm was getting irritated by it, and I was getting a little perturbed, and I said, “What’s the matter, doesn’t your equipment work?” “Oh yes, it always has up till now, but I keep looking at your chart and it says you are 45 years of age and yet your systolic over your diastolic is absolutely perfect. I cannot comprehend it.” I said, “That’s correct. It is perfect.” And he also gave me a clean bill of health. So I passed at 45 years of age for a $100,000 policy with a good blood pressure showing, thanks to the cayenne. I have been told by medical doctors, that because of my arthritis, hardening of arteries, stomach ulcers and some auto accidents that banged me up pretty badly, that I couldn’t live past my 40th year. Yet, at 45 years I was pronounced in good condition. This, to me, was one of my biggest sales points on cayenne. If it could help me, it could help anybody. I have seen it used so many times over the years with such success, that I feel that it is one of our great herbs.
– Dr. John Christopher

How do you use Cayenne? What are you favorite culinary or herbal recipes? Share in the comments below.

–Emily Ruff

Sources:

Gladstar, Rosemary. Rosemary Gladstar’s Family Herbal: a Guide to Living Life with Energy, Health, and Vitality. Storey Books, 2001.

Common name:  Pine

Latin name: Pinus spp. (Pinus elliottii – slash pine, Pinus palustris – longleaf pine, Pinus clausa – sand pine, Pinus echinata – shortleaf pine, Pinus taeda – loblolly pine, Pinus serotina – pond pine, Pinus glabra – spruce pine)

Family: Pinaceae

Usage: The pine tree has long been utilized for its lumber, resins and medicines. The leaves of the pine tree, or needles, can be utilized for their medicinal properties, as well as the resin of the tree. The energetics of pine are warming and drying. The fresh green needles of pine can be made into a tasty infusion that is packed with Vitamin C.  The inner bark of pine is utilized to soothe a wet, phlegmy, congested cough and act as an expectorant. The needles can also be utilized in a steam and inhaled. Pine resin is antimicrobial; just like it heals the wounded bark of the tree, it can assist in healing minor cuts and abrasions.  The resin and innerbark can be infused into and oil and utilized as a salve. Not only valued by us humans, pines are an important source of food and shelter for wildlife wherever they grow.  

Growth/Habitat: Pines are evergreen, coniferous trees. There are approximately 126 species within the Pinus genus, 7 of which grow in Florida. Each of the seven pines that grow throughout Florida thrives in a particular habitat. For example, Longleaf pine can be found mostly in the northern half of Florida, in sandy flatlands. Slash pine is found growing naturally throughout most of Florida, especially in the southern half. Sand pine thrives in coastal dune regions and is a popular choice for Christmas trees. All pines have long, slender leaves known as “needles”.  These needles tend to be in groups of two or more and are arranged in a bunch called a fascicle. Pines are gymnosperms, meaning they  reproduce with seeds, but do not have flowers or fruit. Pines instead produce seed between male and female cones. Some pines release seed on their own, while some pines require fire to induce the opening of the cone and release of the seeds; this is known as serotiny. One such species is the long leaf pine, Pinus palustris, which before the advent of major fire suppression practices by humans, covered 60 million acres of the southeastern US. (UFIFAS)

Energetics: Cool or warm (Depending on the species) • Moist • Dry

Recipes:

• Infuse fresh pine needles in apple cider vinegar
• Infuse pine needles in carrier oil and use your favorite salve recipe for pine salve

Culinary Use: One of the most popular uses is creating a simple hot water infusion with fresh pine needles. 

Other herbs that combine well with pine are: 

• Thyme and bee balm for cold prevention
• Cinnamon, cardamom, and ginger help warm the body up in the wintertime and fight off germs
• Peppermint and catnip for daytime support when you’re feeling under the weather

Fresh pine needles can be used to infuse apple cider vinegar for a potent vitamin C-packed balsamic vinegar-like product that many enjoy.

Other Uses: 

• Can be used in a steam to loosen phlegm, chest congestion, and coughs 
• Resin can help heal minor abrasions and cuts
• Pine needles can be consumed as tea to reduce fevers and soothe coughs and colds
• The needles are a diuretic
• Inner pine bark is more astringent than the needles and contains more resin
• The resin (pitch) is often used in first-aid as an antimicrobial wound dressing, and it can help remove splinters
• Pine resin is antimicrobial, and just as it heals wounds on the bark of the tree, it can also help us heal minor cuts and abrasions
• The resin and inner bark can also be used to infuse oil to make a soothing salve. 

Flower Essence: For those who often blame themselves for their mistakes and the mistakes of others, pine flower essence can help break the cycle of self-blame. Individuals who are rarely satisfied with their achievements and always find faults in themselves find relief with pine flower essence. Guilt can create a negative cycle, so introducing this herbal ally as a flower essence can help one reclaim perspective and find more balance in self.

Cautions: A few species of trees have “pine” in their name, but they’re not used in the same way and could even be toxic. Australian pine (Casuarina spp.) and Norfolk Island pine (Araucaria heterophylla) are two such trees. When working with pine, as with any herbal ally, rely on identifiers and scientific names to verify identity.

Do not use pine needles during pregnancy. Avoid using the bark internally long-term. Both the needles and bark can irritate the kidneys, especially with long-term and high-dose usage. Don’t use pine resin internally unless under the direction of a medical or herbal professional in very small doses. 

When using the inner bark, avoid girdling the tree.

References: 

The Bach Remedies Workbook: A Study Course in the Bach Flower Remedies, by Stefan Ball, (p. 125-126)

Florida’s Edible Wild Plants: A Guide to Collecting and Cooking, by Peggy Sias Lantz, (p. 55-56)

https://www.holisticlivingschool.org/2020/05/23/june-pine/

https://www.holisticlivingschool.org/2014/11/09/materia-medica-pine/

https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/FR003?downloadOpen=true

https://www.herbalgram.org/resources/herbalgram/issues/65/table-of-contents/article2756/

https://theherbalacademy.com/8-ways-use-pine-needles/

Sources: https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/FR/FR00300.pdf

Family: Apiaceae

Common name: Fennel

Usage:  The entire above-ground portion of the fennel plant can be utilized for food and medicine and have been for centuries. Valued by the Greeks & Romans, fennel tea was said to have been consumed before battle to give warriors courage. According to Greek myth, Prometheus carried fire from Olympus to Earth with a giant fennel stalk. 

The bulbs and leaves have a mild, anise like flavor that lend to delicious culinary dishes. The seeds of fennel are considered to be the more potent medicinal portion of plant due to their high aromatic oil content. The information contained here will generally be referring to the usage of the seed unless stated otherwise. 

Aromatic fennel seeds are an effective carminative, helping expel gas and ease digestive upset. Fennel seeds are warming and drying, stimulating sluggish digestion and helping to relieve indigestion and diarrhea. Fennel is an excellent remedy for colic in babies, especially when combined with catnip or chamomile. (This blend is excellent for adults too!)

The antispasmodic properties are not limited to the digestive tract but also have a positive effect on the respiratory system. Fennel is an excellent component to a formula to treat cough and bronchitis.
Fennel seed is known as a galactagogue – which means that it can help breast milk production in individuals with a low milk flow. Safe for nursing folks and babies, fennel seed should be used in small amounts and with caution during pregnancy.

Rosalee De La Foret references multiple studies that support fennel’s ability to help relieve the fatigue and pain related to menstrual cramps ( De La Foret, p.71). David Hoffman recommends a compress of fennel seed for eyelid inflammation and conjunctivitis (Hoffmann, p. 551).

A delicious addition to an otherwise unflavorful herbal formula, fennel shines as a tea and culinary spice. This sweet anise like seed can also be prepared as a tincture in your preferred menstruum, just be sure to lightly crush the seeds first. 

Growth/Habitat: Native to the Mediterranean, fennel now grows in many regions of the world. Fennel grows well in Florida, the bulb being a cool weather garden vegetable and the flowers and seed beginning in May and throughout the summer. There are two varieties of fennel, common fennel and sweet fennel, or Florence fennel. Florence fennel (Foeniculum vulgare var. azoricum) is cultivated for the hearty bulbs, where as common fennel (simply F. vulgare) is grown for the leaves, pollen and seeds. 

Along with dill, fennel is in the carrot family (Apiaceae). Fennel leaves resemble dill leaves in that they are feathery and divided. Fennel has hollow stems and grows to be about three feet in height. The small yellow flowers are arranged in a umbrella like shape called an umbel and make way to the seeds we use for medicine. To harvest seed, cut the seed head once they have begun to turn brown and place in a paper bag and allow to fully dry; label & store. Plant fennel seeds in Florida in the cool months between October and March.

A great addition to the butterfly garden, pollinators love fennel flowers and the plant acts as a host for the caterpillars of black swallowtail butterflies. 

Recipes:

• Eat a spoonful of fennel seed before or after meals for healthy digestion
• Combine with your favorite bitter herbs for a delicious digestive bitter blend (consider dandelion and burdock)
• Crush fennel seeds and cover with honey, strain and add to tea as desired

Sources:

“Fennel.” Alchemy of Herbs: Transform Everyday Ingredients into Foods and Remedies That Heal, by Rosalee de la Forêt, Hay House, Inc., 2017, pp. 69–75.

Hoffmann, David. Medical Herbalism. Healing Arts Press, 2003

“Yard and Garden.” Fennel, Mar. 2012, extension.usu.edu/yardandgarden/herbs/fennel.

Latin name: Calendula officinalis – Asteraceae

Common name: Calendula, pot marigold

Usage: This sticky, golden, aster is well known as an all-star skin remedy. The resinous flowers are cooling and soothing topically, as well as internally. Infused in a carrier oil (olive oil, almond oil, etc), calendula flowers can aid in finding relief from irritated and inflamed skin issues such as: bug bites & stings, dry & cracked skin, eczema, minor burns such as sunburns, scrapes, cuts, and bruises. Both antibacterial and antifungal, calendula makes a wonderful addition to a formula to treat minor topical skin infections in the form of a poultice or compress. Calendula is a common herb used in the treatment of hemorrhoids. A favorite salve formula for bruising and muscle soreness is a combination of arnica flowers (Arnica montana), St. John’s wort flowers (Hypericum perforatum)  and calendula flowers. Internally calendula has an affinity for our gastrointestinal and respiratory systems and is cooling to hot, inflammatory issues of both.  An infusion of calendula can ease GI irritation related to ulcers, colitis, Chron’s, gastritis, acid reflux, and GERD. The antibacterial properties of calendula also help support this calming action on the GI tract. Calendula infusion is soothing to a sore throat and lungs that are dry and irritated from a cough. Infuse calendula flowers with garden sage leaves (Salvia officinalis) for a gargle to treat a sore throat. Use this same combination as a mouth rinse for oral lesions and infections.  Not only is this little flower a medicinal powerhouse, its incredibly beautiful! Sprinkle the golden leaves on your salad for some color. Plant calendula for the pollinators. A common dye plant amongst natural dye makers, calendula offers light yellow to soft brown hues.

Growth/Habitat:  Probably native to Southern Europe, calendula has been widely cultivated making its origin a bit complicated discern. A common garden plant, Calendula officinalis is technically short-lived perennial but will not survive the hot summers of Florida or the cold winters of the north. Here in Central Florida, April is probably the last month that you will be gathering calendula blossoms as we phase into the long, hot summer days and the plant dies back. Plant seeds in autumn and winter for a spring harvest. Calendula prefers a sunny location with rich, well-drained soil. Flowering quickly from seed, calendula will continue to flower prolifically if dead-headed. 

Recipe: Calendula oil

Ingredients: calendula flowers, carrier oil, jar, cheesecloth

• Lightly pack a jar with freshly wilted or dry calendula flowers
• Cover flowers with oil so there is about one inch of oil covering the plant matter
• Make note of how this smells and check your oil frequently for any signs of spoilage or mold
• Label and let sit in a temperature consistent space for a minimum of two weeks
• Strain with cheesecloth, bottle, and label
• Use as is or in your favorite salve blend

Latin name: Plantago major, Plantago lanceolata, Plantago virginica

Family: Plantaginaceae

Common name: Plantain

The leaves of Plantago major and Plantago lanceolata, commonly known as plantain, are an essential component of any herbal medicine cabinet and first aid kit. Originating in Europe & Northern and Central Asia,  P. major & P. lanceolata have become naturalized in North America.  Plantain leaves are cooling, demulcent, and mildly astringent; these properties lend to plantain’s usage as an anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, analgesic, vulnerary, decongestant, and drawing agent. Commonly called the “green bandage”, a poultice of fresh, mashed Plantago leaves can be used topically to address insect bites, stings, rashes, eczema, poison ivy/oak, and infections. The drawing ability of plantain can assist indirectly pulling out any fussy insect stingers or splinters embedded in the skin. Infusing plantain leaves in oil and making a salve is one way to access the vulnerary, or wound healing, properties. A stand-out first-aid plant, Plantago can also assist in stopping minor bleeding of scrapes and cuts. All of the aforementioned properties that contribute to plantain’s topical uses also lend to the leaf’s internal applications. The cooling, demulcent, and vulnerary properties of plantain have an affinity for the digestive tract and respiratory system. Hot, inflammatory issues of the digestive system such as ulcers and heartburn can benefit from an infusion of the leaves. A respiratory system irritated by a dry cough can be soothed in a similar fashion. The mild astringency of plantain leaves can help expel dampness in the lungs.  The young leaves of P. major can be eaten and are high in Calcium, & Vitamins, A, C and K. P. virginica is our Florida native plantain and is reputed to have similar properties to that of P. major/P. lanceolata, especially topically in the treatment of inflammatory skin irritation, infection and insect bites. The seeds of P. ovata and P. psyllium, also known as psyllium husk, are a commonly used dietary fiber. 

Growth/Habitat:  As mentioned, P. lanceolata and P. major are native to Europe and Northern and Central Asia, but are now widely distributed throughout North America. These species occur in Florida but are commonly found in more northern regions. Arriving with European colonization, Plantago major, came to be known to indigenous peoples as “white man’s footprint” , due to its thriving in the disturbed soils around European settlements. Almost all plantain’s can be found flourishing in disturbed soils along roadsides and forest edges. P. virginica, in particular, thrives in our sandy Florida soils. Most Plantago species in Florida will make an appearance in late winter, putting up flowers and seed heads spring into early summer. These relatively tender plants often die back in the heat of Florida summer.  The leaves of P. major, P. lanceolata, and P. virginica all present themselves in a basal rosette of leaves, spreading close to the ground with inner leaves becoming somewhat erect. P. major has wider, broader leaves, which is why it is sometimes called broadleaf plantain. P. lanceolata has longer, narrow, lance-shaped leaves with more defined ribs (hence the common name ribleaf/ribwort).  P. virginica has more narrow leaves like P. lanceolata, but the leaves tend to be smaller, toothed and quite hairy. See accompanying images for more detail. The inflorescence of plantago flowers is born on long stalks that terminate in a cone or spike of small white flowers. Each of these flowers may produce up to 200 seeds!  P. major and P. lanceolata are technically perennials but tend to behave more like annuals in Central Florida. P. virginica is an annual. 

Recipes: Plantain chip recipe from Wildman Steve Brill 

2 cups young common plantain leaves, or kale
2 tsp. sesame oil
1/2 tsp. fennel seeds, ground
1/2 tsp. caraway seeds, ground
1/4 tsp. powdered ginger
1/2 tsp. Salt
A dash of hot sauce
1. Stir all the ingredients together
2. Spread onto 3 cookie sheets covered with non-stick mats (or oiled
cookie sheets) and bake about 6 minutes, or until very lightly browned
and crisp, in a preheated 425 degree oven. Stir occasionally, being
careful not to let the leaves burn

Resources:

Cook, William. “Plantago major. Plantain.” Plantago major. Plantain. | Henriette’s Herbal Homepage, www.henriettes-herb.com/eclectic/cook/PLANTAGO_MAJOR.htm. Online Upload of The Physiomedical Dispensatory, 1869, written by William Cook, M.D. Hilty, John. “Dwarf Plantain.” Dwarf Plantain (Plantago virginica), 2019, www.illinoiswildflowers.info/weeds/plants/dwf_plantain.htm.

Strauss, Paul. The Big Herbs the Use and Abuse, Natural History and Identification of Major Tree and Shrub Species in the MidWest and Eastern U.S., with Stories and Insights of a Life Married to Farm and Forest. XOXOX Press, 2014.

Latin name: Quercus spp.  –

Family: Fagaceae

Common name: Oak

Usage:  The wood of the oak genus, or Quercus, has long been utilized for its strength and durability, from ship framing to tanning hides to wine barrels. Nearly every culture throughout history that encountered the oaks utilized the tree in some fashion. There is a fascinating and complex history that accompanies the oak throughout time, from utilitarian purposes to symbolism and ritual use. This write-up will focus primarily on the medicinal and edible applications of the Quercus genus.  The outer and inner bark of the oak is the part of the tree that is used for its healing properties. When we talk about utilizing tree bark medicine, we must be especially mindful of the time and manner in which we harvest. When harvesting bark, always look for a freshly downed tree before harvesting from a living one. Trim branches and strip the bark, rather than cutting into the trunk of the tree. Harvest barks and branches in fall, winter, and early spring when the tree is less susceptible to pests and disease.  The bark of the oak is drying and astringent, the properties that lend to its medicinal uses; these actions come from the high amount of tannins present in the outer and inner bark. Tannins constrict and dry tissues, making plants high in tannic acids especially useful for conditions of excess moisture, loose tissues, and swelling. Oak bark’s astringency is useful internally for diarrhea, hemorrhoids, varicose veins and loose tissues that need tonifying, especially of the digestive system. Please note that oak is a powerful astringent and can cause constipation when used in excess. Utilizing oak internally may interfere with digestion so it is suggested to consume it between meals. Topically, astringent herbs such as oak help bring relief to bites and stings, and other irritating skin conditions, as well as to stop bleeding and relieve inflammation. Powdered oak bark can be applied to the gums to stop bleeding, ease pain and inflammation and help fight infection. The nut of the oak tree, better known as the acorn, has been utilized for food by First Nations people throughout time. The white oak, or Quercus alba, is the most popular of the acorns to consume for it is full of fat and less bitter than acorns of other species. The acorn must be processed in order to be palatable. Follow the link here for Green Deane’s instructions on processing acorns. Not only does the acorn serve as a source of nutrition humans, but it is also a popular forage source for bear, turkey, deer, quail, ducks, jays and other birds and mammals. *Warnings/contraindications: Please note that oak is a powerful astringent and can cause constipation when used in excess. Utilizing oak internally may interfere with digestion so it is suggested to consume it between meals. For short term use only. 

Growth/Habitat: There are an estimated 58 species in the genus Quercus in North America, 19 of which can be found in Florida. The oaks display themselves in many different ways with a variety of bark colors and textures, as well as leaf shape and size. The habitats in which individual Quercus species thrive varies. Oaks are anywhere from the size of a shrub to a tall tree. We see many different species of oak in Central Florida, but perhaps the most striking is the Southern Live Oak, or Quercus virginiana.  This species of oak has both a deep taproot and a wide-spreading root system to support its heavy, sprawling branches that often dramatically curve towards the ground and up again. The Southern Live Oak, though not truly an evergreen, maintains its leaves throughout the year and drops them just as new leaves are emerging. The leaves are thick, obovate and dark green on top while silvery on the bottom. The male flowers are catkins – the long, green, dangling flower structures that produce pollen. The acorns of this oak are small and light to dark brown.  Southern Live Oaks thrive in well-drained sandy soils with plentiful moisture. 

Recipes: Tough parts of plants, such as bark, are ideally prepared as decoctions. A decoction is water extract in which the bark, or other hardy plant matter such as roots and seeds, are simmered and steeped. A standard decoction of oak bark can be used internally and externally.
1 oz of herb to 1 quart of water. Place herb and water in a pot, bring to a boil and reduce to a simmer, simmering for 10 to 20 minutes minimum. Turn off heat and continue to steep for a stronger extract. 

Sources: Deane. “Acorns: The Inside Story.” Eat The Weeds and Other Things, Too, 5 Dec. 2018, www.eattheweeds.com/acorns-the-inside-story/.

Easley, Thomas, and Steven H. Horne. The Modern Herbal Dispensatory: a Medicine-Making Guide. North Atlantic Books, 2016.

Strauss, Paul. The Big Herbs the Use and Abuse, Natural History and Identification of Major Tree and Shrub Species in the MidWest and Eastern U.S., with Stories and Insights of a Life Married to Farm and Forest. XOXOX Press, 2014.

Latin name: Citrus spp. – Rutaceae

Common name: Citrus, oranges, lemon, lime, pomelo, grapefruit, mandarins, etc.

Usage:  Many of the common citrus fruits we know and love are not only delicious but also beneficial for both their nutritional and medicinal properties. The flesh, juice and rind of many citrus species have been utilized by humans throughout history. We will focus on oranges, lemons and grapefruits. The sweet orange (Citrus x sinensis) is an important crop in the state of Florida, along with grapefruits (Citrus x paradisi). Introduced by Spanish conquistadors in the 1500s, citrus crops evolved to become one of the state’s most valuable industries. According to Florida Citrus Mutual, there are presently 4000 citrus growers cultivating 437000 acres of land in Florida. As you can imagine, this makes citrus blossoms a major source of nectar for the state’s honey bees (along with Serenoa repens and Bidens alba). 

Nutritionally, citrus fruits are high in Vitamin C, some varieties with more substantial amounts than others. Lemons (Citrus limon)  are particularly high in Vitamin C and were historically used to prevent and treat scurvy.  Vitamin C is an essential component of our diet, supporting the body’s ability to repair tissues, metabolize proteins, produce collagen, prevent oxidative stress, and fight infection through supporting the immune system. Along with Vitamin C, citrus fruits are also high in other macronutrients such as sugars, dietary fiber, potassium, folate, calcium, thiamin, niacin, vitamin B6, phosphorus, magnesium, copper, riboflavin and pantothenic acid (Lv, Xinmiao et al, 2015). There is a plethora of scientific research and reading out there that elaborates on the medicinal applications of citrus fruits if you wish to delve in deeper!

Energetically, citrus is warming and bitter. Citrus is particularly indicated for respiratory congestion,cough, indigestion, flatulence and general digestive upset. In TCM, citrus corrects energy circulation, strengthens the spleen, counteracts excessive moisture and resolves phlegm. Citrus peels are particularly high in antimicrobial properties, making an infusion in white vinegar an excellent cleaning agent for kitchen and other surfaces. 

Growth/Habitat: The Citrus genus has a long history of growth, use and consumption and an equally long and convoluted taxonomy. Native to South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia and Australia, the Citrus genus has historically been cultivated, hybridized and spread all across the world. There are numerous citrus species and varieties growing in much of the tropical and subtropical regions of the planet. If you live in a region of Florida that does not regularly experience freezing temperatures, chances are you can succeed in growing your own citrus fruits. Oranges, lemons, grapefruits and the myriad of other citrus varieties thrive in our well-drained sandy soils and full sun. 

Citrus are generally shrub to tree sized, anywhere from about 5 to 30 feet in height. The branches and stems tend to be spiney. Leaves are entire, usually evergreen and arranged alternately.  Citrus flowers are small, generally not larger than 2 inches in diameter, almost always white with 5 petals, and generally produce a strong, heavenly scent. The citrus fruits we are familiar with are known botanically as a hesperidium, a type of modified berry with a thick peel. 

Update 2024: Citrus greening, first detected in Florida in 2005, is a serious disease affecting citrus trees, of which there is no treatment. It is a bacteria transmitted by the asian citrus psyllid, which weakens the tree, causing it to die within a few years.

January, particularly after the first frost, is an ideal time to harvest many varieties of citrus including navel oranges, grapefruits and tangerines. 

Recipes: 

The options are limitless! 

• Add dried (organic) peel to your tea blend
• Eat some fruit
• Make some juice
• Squeeze some lemon in your water
• Make your favorite jam or marmalade
• Infuse a vinegar or oil for a salad dressing

Try this easy DIY cleaning spray:

• Any citrus peel in a mason jar, cover with white vinegar and let sit for 1 – 2 weeks, strain and pour into a spray bottle. Use this as an all purpose surface cleaner!

Sources:

A Barefoot Doctor’s Manual. Cloudburst Press, 1977.

“Citrus Industry History.” Citrus Industry History – Florida Citrus Mutual, flcitrusmutual.com/citrus-101/citrushistory.aspx.

Lv, Xinmiao, et al. “Citrus Fruits as a Treasure Trove of Active Natural Metabolites That Potentially Provide Benefits for Human Health.” Chemistry Central Journal, Springer International Publishing, 24 Dec. 2015, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4690266/.

“Office of Dietary Supplements – Vitamin C.” NIH Office of Dietary Supplements, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminC-Consumer/.

https://www.fdacs.gov/Agriculture-Industry/Pests-and-Diseases/Plant-Pests-and-Diseases/Citrus-Health-Response-Program/Citrus-Pests-and-Diseases/HLB-Citrus-Greening